Programmed Instruction
One day, when his daughter was in the fourth grade, B.F. Skinner went to her school to visit her math class. As he sat there and listened, he realized that the teacher, unknowingly, was violating almost every rule he had come to hold as true in the way humans learn. This realization lead this prolific inventor to run home and invent his teaching machine, (B.F. Skinner Foundation, 2002).
This teaching machine was based on his behaviorist principles of stimulus-response, or immediate feedback to reinforce the learning. Skinner believed that if children were given the right material at the right time and given reinforcement, they would learn better. In other words, Skinner's research into operant conditioning and animal learning led him to suggest that human learning could be maximized by the careful control of reinforcement for desired behaviors. This theory was eventually the basis for Programmed Instruction, or PI. During the 1950s and 60s, PI was a popular teaching method. However, in the 1970s, it began to fade away, and by 1972, was almost completely abandoned. Its popularity began to increase in the 1980s with the addition of the personal computer to primary and secondary education.
Programmed Instruction assumes that technology is not a specific machine or piece of hardware, but rather a distinct process or method for doing something. By programmed, what is meant is that the instructional content is broken down, designed, and arranged into instructional tutorials or training programs, each with a very specific education goal and objective. PI is also very active, where the learner is engaged in the process. It is also self-paced, so that different learners can learn at the rate most comfortable to them. The Center for Programmed Instruction gives the following example:
. . . a company has a policy manual that states how its employees are to do something, like how to greet customers as they walk in the door, or how to properly treat other employees to avoid sexual harassment. If this manual was broken down, arranged, and sequenced into instructional tutorials or training programs according to the technology of PI, we would say that this content is Programmed Instruction (2002).
Programmed Instruction is an essential part of computer aided or based instruction. Extensive amounts of educational software are based on PI principles—computers have become the new teaching machines.
Programmed Instruction does, however, have its drawbacks. As Ellison points out,
In linear programming, all users follow the same path. This uniformity prevents adaptation of content to users' needs. Pushing a button or filling in a blank does not necessarily represent active participation. Many poorer programs require only copying tasks which actually can inhibit learning (2002).
Additionally, PI has been found to be boring after time for the learner. The initial contact with PI is usually quite exciting, but doing repetitive tasks alone causes bored for all but the most highly motivated learner. Another drawback is that PI tends to emphasize short-answer types of exercises, which may not effectively assess nor teach deep understanding.
References
B.F. Skinner Foundation, 2002. Brief biography of B.F. Skinner [WWW document]. Retrieved September 9, 2002 from http://www.bfskinner.org/bio.asp
Center for Programmed Instruction (2002). Programmed Instruction Tutorial [WWW document]. Retrieved October 8, 2002 from http://www.centerforpi.com.
Ellison, John, (2002). Computer-Assisted Instruction/Programmed Instruction [WWW document]. Retrieved October 8, 2002 from http://informatics.buffalo.edu/faculty/ellison/Syllabi/519Complete/formats/programmedinstr/program.html#unique.